Macaque Habitat and Housing
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In general, the macaque have a medium-sized body, with a stocky build. Animals belonging to the smallest species weigh approximately 13 pounds, while representatives of the largest species weigh an average of 40 pounds. Tail length varies among the different species. All macaques have long, sharp canine teeth and finger nails that can pose a risk to human handlers through either bite or scratch wounds.
They also have cheek pouches and a fully opposable thumb. The opposable thumb gives these animals the ability to manipulate objects (e.g., cage latches) with great precision. They feed on both animal and vegetable resources and have a highly varied diet. Macaques are primarily active during the daylight hours, and most species sleep in trees at night.
The macaques are long-lived animals, with reports of some animals living in captivity over 30 years. This lifespan entails a commitment of considerable duration, with substantial, changing needs of the animal over the course of its life. As with other species of primates, the design of the environment should take into account the age of the macaque. For example, older monkeys will develop arthritis, limiting their ability to jump onto perches, swing, or otherwise navigate their enclosure. Older primates can also have reduced vision capabilities, thus further limiting their ability to move around the enclosure and interact with other animals or people.
Conversely, young animals are very active and curious. The enclosure design should allow them to express these characteristics without compromising their physical safety. Young animals also are particularly sensitive to the effects of social deprivation and should be housed with other primates of the same species whenever possible.
Habitat
The macaques represent a collection of approximately 20 species of monkeys, most of which are found in Asia. They occupy a wide geographic range that is considered second only to man in its extent. In this range, the habitat occupied by macaques varies from near desert to rainforest, and from sea level to snowy mountain tops. Some macaques spend the majority of their time in trees, while others are predominantly ground-dwellers. Many live in close proximity to human beings; the rhesus monkey is sacred to Hindus and is often found near temples in India and Nepal.
Behavior
As a rule, the macaques are social animals, living in groups of multiple males and females; the sex ratio typically reflects more females than males in a group. Even for the same species, group size tends to be smaller when the home range size is also smaller (e.g., when constrained by human activities). Within these groups, individuals are ranked according to dominance (hierarchies), with the higher ranking animals doing more of the successful breeding and having first access to food and other desirable resources. Often it is the rank of the mother, rather than the father, that determines the rank of offspring. Young males may be evicted from their birth group as they approach puberty, forming temporary “bachelor” groups until they join a new group. Wounding of animals can occur when challenges for dominance occur.
Because these animals rely in large part on visual communication, they use a number of facial signals, often accompanied by vocalizations, to threaten or to make friendly overtures. Threat displays include opening the mouth in the shape of an “O”, a direct stare, raising the eyebrows quickly and repeatedly, flapping the ears, a jerky head-bob, shaking an object in their environment such as a tree branch or cage door, slapping the ground, or charging with intent to fight. Occasionally, a lack of compatibility between animals can be detected simply by the increased physical distance maintained between them. Behavioral indicators of compatibility between animals include social grooming, lip smacking, and sitting in close proximity. Food sharing has also been used to assess compatibility between pairs of animals.
Mating and Reproduction
The reproductive cycle of macaques is characterized by a seasonal estrus period, with menstrual cycles occurring throughout the year. Females have been reported to begin cycling as early as approximately 1.5 years, although a more typical age is 2.5 years. Most species of macaques exhibit swelling and reddening of the skin of the rump, perineum, and occasionally arms, legs and face (referred to as “sex skin”). The swelling and reddening becomes more pronounced from beginning to end of the menstrual cycle. Exceptions to this are bonnet macaques and toque monkeys, who do not have marked sex skin. Menopause occurs in the macaques, with the number of menstrual cycles decreasing each year when the animal reaches her third decade of life.
In general, the female actively solicits mating by the male (again, the bonnet macaque is an exception to this). Usually, the dominant males in the group breed the females more often, although less dominant males in a group have been reported to breed and reproduce successfully. The rhesus monkey’s gestation period is between five and six months. The infant is quite dependent upon the mother, and the current preference is to leave the infant with its mother until approximately one year of age to help ensure adequate development of social, particularly maternal, skills by the developing infant.
Macaques have been housed successfully in a variety of types of housing, including island environments, corrals, corn cribs, indoor-outdoor runs, pens and cages. Regardless of the enclosure design or size, it must be sturdy enough to withstand being shaken and chewed on by its inhabitants. Because of the animals’ tendency to flee upward when escaping a perceived threat, they benefit from perches, shelves or other structures that increase the three-dimensional space of the enclosure. Generally, older macaques prefer a non-moving shelf or perch, while the younger ones will readily use swings. Because macaques can strangle on lengths of chain, swings should be short in length and/or constructed of materials that cannot loop around the neck, such as flexible polyvinyl chloride (PVC) tubing. Similarly, ropes can be picked apart or chewed on, and this may result in a gastric obstruction. Thus, in most cases, ropes of cotton, sisal or jute should be avoided.
In general, macaques should not be exposed to cold or wet weather without a method for them to conserve body heat. Japanese macaques living in the snowy mountains of Japan manage to stay warm by soaking in natural hot springs. A number of captive macaques, however, have lost parts of their tails or one or more digits to frostbite. This problem can be reduced or prevented by providing them with supplemental heating or a shelter.
During conditions of high heat and humidity, macaques may overheat if they undergo a physical stress, such as being chased around an enclosure. Providing macaques with a shallow and indestructible pool in which to swim and cool off can be an asset to macaques housed outdoors in warmer climates. The swimming pool should be shallow, to prevent animals from drowning, and resistant to deterioration from chewing. The pool should be cleaned routinely to provide animals with good quality water for swimming.
The circumstance in which only one macaque is housed on the premises should be avoided. If several macaques are housed individually in cages, they should be able to see, hear and smell each other. If possible, individually caged animals also should have access to visual barriers in order to avoid being seen by other animals, should they so choose. It is recommended that if an animal cannot be socially housed, other forms of enrichment (e.g., toys, foraging opportunities) should be provided to compensate for the lack of social stimulation.
